Management Development

Management Development

Method

Coaching is a method which is used in developing managerial thinking processes as well as operative skills. In coaching, the superior plays the role of the guide and the instructor. The coach sets mutually agreed goals. What needs to be done is also highlighted. The way to get things done is also indicated in clear terms.

Suggestions for getting everything on track are also advanced. Every attempt is made to put the trainee on track, correcting mistakes all along the path. The trainer helps the trainee live up to those goals through periodic reviews of the trainee’s progress and by suggesting modifications in his behaviour where needed.

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The objective of coaching is not only to teach and guide a subordinate in the performance of his immediate assignments but also provide him with diversified work so that he may grow and progress.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Coaching Method:

1. Periodic feedback and evaluation are also a part of coaching, which yield immediate benefits to an organisation, to the coach and to the subordinate. It is learning by doing.

2. It requires the least centralised staff co-ordination, for every executive can coach his men even if no management development programme exists.

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3. New executives can undergo orientation and imbibe the culture of an organisation quickly. Coaching helps new hires to put their best foot forward with courage and confidence.

4. The coaching technique is authoritarian, for an executive tends to familiarise his subordinates with his own work habits and beliefs, even though these may be faulty. In other words, it has the tendencies to perpetuate the current managerial styles and practices in the organisation.

5. It heavily relies on the coach’s ability to be good teacher, which he may not necessarily be.

6. The training atmosphere, free from worries of the daily duties, is not available.

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To be effective, coaching requires close attention from the trainer. The superior who is acting as a coach should be willing to help the trainee whenever required. The superior should have the ability to communicate and to stimulate, and should have patience to help his subordinates. He should also set aside time for scheduling sessions.

He should avoid being too dominant in the performance process, so that the trainee can experience things for himself and does not become completely dependent upon the coach for decisions. Coaching will work well if the coach provides a good model with whom the trainee can identify; if both can be open with each other; if the coach accepts his responsibility fully; and if he provides the trainee with recognition of his improvement and suitable rewards.

Method 

Job rotation represents an excellent method for broadening the manager or potential manager, for turning specialists into generalists. It refers to the transfer or movement of executives from one job to another and from one plan to another on some planned basis for educational learning purposes.

“Job rotation is often designed for beginning level managers while planned progression is more likely to occur at higher managerial levels.” Such rotation may continue for a period ranging from 6 months to 24 months.

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This method provides a great deal of job experience for those who are potential executives who need broadening of outlook and an increased understanding of the various aspects of management. The emphasis is on diversified instead of specialised skills and knowledge.

Under this method, the trainees are rotated over various routine jobs in a department, division or unit before they are due for promotion as managers. The idea is to impart an overall knowledge and familiarity with the different sectional jobs (such as billing, issuing challahs, preparing inspection notes, settling railway claims, handling customer accounts, etc. in the sales department) before they are posted as Managers in the department.

This secures a compromise between overspecialisation even from the lowest most routine level, and a minimum of special skills and expertise necessary for middle level managers. These persons are moved from one job to another according to a schedule of rotation. It also includes moving people between line and staff positions.

Job rotations are mostly horizontal or lateral.

Such rotations can be instituted:

(i) On a planned basis, i.e., by means of a training programme whereby the worker spends 2 or 3 months in an activity and is then moved on; or

(ii) On a situational basis, i.e., by moving the person to another activity when the first is no longer challenging to him, or to meet the needs of work scheduling.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Job Rotation:

1. It breaks down departmental provincialism for everyone is moved from one to another. It rather develops interdepartmental co-operation.

2. Boredom, monotony are reduced and since job rotation permits a greater understanding of other activities within the organisation people are prepared more rapidly to assume greater responsibility, especially at the upper echelons.

3. Job rotation injects new ideas into the older departmental personnel who may otherwise fall in a rut. New concepts are infused into them and they are diffused throughout an enterprise.

4. Through this system, a man does not end up in just one place. He gets a chance to step into a higher position. In this way, an organisation gains management strength in depth.

5. Job rotation ensures the avoidance of the problem which arises when a newly promoted manager is required to supervise his former peers.

6. It makes it possible for the management to compare one man with another, and gives everyone an equal chance for advancement.

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7. It does not develop “specialists” but produces “generalists,” that is, men who take a broad, company-wide point of view, men whose chief ability is to handle people and make decisions.

8. Awareness of what is happening elsewhere and familiarity with other task centres helps a balanced and informed attitude to enterprise goal and activities.

9. Each manager’s abilities and talents are best tested in a variety of jobs, so the enterprise can secure his best utilisation in the ultimate assignment.

10. It upsets family and home life, because many a time transfers force executives to go to different places (sometimes, far off and unfamiliar) at short notice.

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11. It undermines organisational morale, efficiency since “executives may have little inducement to sink their teeth deeply into as assignment.” Established operations are disturbed and the manager is prone to error in a new seat.

12. It becomes difficult for a subordinate to adjust himself to his new bosses. Interpersonal relationship takes time for adjustment and employees, with frequent moves, are apt to feel insecure.

13. The new incumbent is likely to bring in a zeal for change; while sound changes are good, ill-conceived and hasty innovations may lead to costly experimentations.

14. Job rotation can demotivate intelligent and aggressive trainees who seek specific responsibility in their chosen speciality.

15. It develops sharp cleavages, friction, jealously and other non-co-operative and dysfunctional forms of human behaviour.

16. The system is like a highly competitive game of “musical chairs.” Whenever there are promotions and transfers, some people are left behind. Therefore, smart young people avoid taking risks.

17. Rotation sometimes leads to subtle class distinctions. Men who are not rotated tend to develop defensive reactions. This leads to misunderstanding and poor communication.

18. The system may easily become over-centralised, inflexible and “closed”.

For rotation to be effective, those moved to different positions should be helped to understand the new task thoroughly, view the change as an opportunity for a genuine learning experience and identify themselves with the new position so that they may exercise full responsibility to achieve results and job improvement.

Method 

An ‘understudy’ is a person who is under training to assume, at a future time, the fall duties and responsibilities of the position currently held by his superior. In this way, it is ensured that a fully trained person is available to replace a manager during his long absence or illness, or on his retirement, transfer or promotion.

An understudy may be picked up by a manager from amongst a large number of subordinates, or several individuals. Such an understudy learns the complexities of the problems and how to solve them, learns also the process of decision-making and investigation and making written recommendations to his superior.

He is generally assigned a project which is closely related to the work in his section. He is deputed to attend executive meetings as a representative of his superior, at which he makes a presentation and proposals.

The essence is that the senior routes much of the departmental work through the junior; discusses problems with him and allows him to participate in the decision-making process as often as possible.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Understudy Method:

1. It is practical and quick in training persons for greater responsibility for it lays emphasis on learning by doing.

2. The learners’ interest and motivation are high and the superior is relieved of his heavy workload.

3. The trainee manager is also not over burdened with work and responsibility; at the same time he secures full participation in the running of the function and insight into the job content.

4. The trainee is able continuously to obtain guidance of the senior. The work that passes through him opens up windows for him to appreciate different angles and view­points related to the job. He receives an opportunity to see the job in total.

5. It ensures continuity of management facilities even when the superior leaves his position.

6. The chances of costly mistakes or upsetting relationship within the group are eliminated.

7. Since the understudy is picked up by the superior often on the basis of favouritism, he tends to perpetuate the existing practices of in-breeding.

8. The motivation of all the employees in the unit may decrease since the incentive to get ahead is partially destroyed when one particular subordinate is identified in advance as one who will be the next occupant of a higher-level managerial position.

9. Under a competent senior, the junior trainee might lose his independence and his critical appraisal of the way of job is performed.

10. The subordinate employees might ignore him and withhold co-operation; they might tend to treat him as an intruding appendage to the function without authority and accountability.

While there are opportunities for sizeable errors, this technique is used predominantly in situations where major or critical decisions can be delayed till the manager returns or can be made in close consultation with the manager next up in line.

Method

It is a technique whereby juniors are assigned to Board or Committees, by the chief executive. They are asked to participate in deliberations of these Board and Committees. In these sessions, real- life actual problems are discussed, different views are debated and decisions are taken.

The juniors get an opportunity to share in managerial decision-making, to learn by watching others and to delve into specific organisational problems. When Committees are of “ad hoc” or temporary nature, they often take a task force activities designed to delve into a particular problem, ascertain alternative solutions, and make a recommendation for implementing a solution.

These temporary assignments can be both interesting and rewarding to the employees’ growth. On the other hand, appointment to permanent committees increases the employees’ exposure to other members of the organisation, broadens his understanding, and gives him an opportunity to grow and make recommendations under the scrutiny of other committee members.

Method

In this method, a trainee is put on a project closely related to the objectives of his department. For example, a new recruit in a property evaluation firm may be asked to do a small project reviewing the prospects of selling commercial space in satellite townships (like Gurgaon, Faridabad, Manesar and Ghaziabad) near Delhi.

The project will give a firsthand experience of the problems and prospects in space selling to the new recruit. Sometimes, a syndicate or a team consisting of persons of mature judgement and proven talent may also be created temporarily to work on a special assignment.

The purpose of the syndicate technique is to “expose a participant to a milieu in which he is persuaded into reflecting upon his experiences as an executive, updating his knowledge, improving his executive skills and developing a greater insight into human behaviour.”

In other words, this method enables an executive to acquire a proper perspective on his job in relation to the activities in areas other than his own, and to give him practice in skills, techniques and procedures which he has to use in his day-to-day work as he rises higher up the ladder of management.

By this method, a team of persons of mature judgement and proved ability is set up with different functional representations so that there is an interchange of ideas and experiences. The syndicate is given a task properly spelt out in terms of briefs and background papers.

Large groups are split into small ones (consisting of 7 to 10 persons), and discussions are supplemented by short lectures. The teacher acts as a “resource person” rather than as a lecturer. Both the organisation and participants must understand the ‘mechanics’ of the utilisation of this method; otherwise it would result in a lot of waste of time and frustration.

Each syndicate prepares a report which is presented to the other groups of executives. An opportunity is provided for discussion, suggestions, criticisms, comments and recommendations for action. This method is used as a device not only for the study of a specific problem but also for other tasks.

Method 

In this method, an ad hoc committee is appointed to discuss, evaluate and offer suggestions relating to an important aspect of business. For example, a group of experts may be asked to look into the feasibility of developing a Software Technology Park in an upcoming area by the Delhi Development Authority.

All the trainees participate in the discussions and deliberations of a committee. They toss around ideas freely and work on a solution through consensus building. The problem is subject to critical study and thorough analysis.

The different viewpoints and learned opinions of members find meaningful expression – if meetings are conducted in a proper manner giving opportunity to every member to come forward with constructive suggestions from time to time. The committee assignment could prove to be a valuable tool to develop interpersonal skills as well, if members know how to get along with each other.

However, when things go out of hand because of emotions and tempers taking charge of committee meetings, the assignment could prove to be a notorious time waster. Not without reason someone has commented that “a committee is a group of unfits engaged by the unwilling to do the unnecessary.”

Method # 7. The Case Study:

Case method is an excellent medium for developing analytical skill. It was started by Harvard Business School. This method is increasingly being used by many other prestigious and not so prestigious management institutes in India.

What is a case? A case is “a written description of an actual situation in business which provokes in the reader the need to decide which is going on, what the situation really is or what the problems are and what can and should be done.”

A case is an objective description of a “real life” business situation in which executives are required to take action and are responsible for results. In this method, an actual business situation is described, in writing, in a comprehensive manner.

The trainees are asked to appraise and analyse the problem situation and suggest solutions. The actual decision taken in the subject case is known only to the executive and is disclosed only at the end of the session when it is compared with the various solutions offered by the group.

Case study can provide stimulating discussions among participants as well as excellent opportunities for individuals to defend their analytical and judgmental abilities. It is rather an effective method for improving decision-making abilities within the constraints of limited information.

This method represents a dynamic and powerful approach to learning. Sometime the case discussion takes place in a small syndicate before they are called upon to discuss before the whole class.

The case study method accomplishes several objectives of the management development programmes:

(i) It distributes knowledge and facts and

(ii) It improves participants’ skills in problem analysis.

Method

This method was developed by Paul and Faith Pigors. The central aim of this method is to stimulate self-development in a blend of understanding that is essential for productive interaction.

This blend combines intellectual ability (power to think clearly, incisively and reasonably about specific facts and also about abstractions); practical judgement (capacity to modify conclusions arrived at intellectually, so that they meet the test of common sense); and social awareness (being able to appreciate the force of other people’s feelings and willing to adjust or implement a decision so that it can be more acceptable to persons who are affected by it).

Group work of each of ‘these cases’ begins when a group meets. Each member, working along for a couple of minutes, studies a written incident. He asks himself; what seems to be going on in this incident? What lead can I find here toward facts of the case and issues that stirred people up?

Appended to each incident is an invitation to make short-term decisions in the role of a person who had to cope with the incident when it actually happened. Under this method, group members address questions to the discussion leader.

The general trend of questioning is to find out about the what, when, where and how of the situation in which an incident developed, and who was present there at the time. Clues are also tracked down if they seem to offer reliable insight into the why of behaviour. After the collection of data, it is necessary to isolate the most important items for decision-making.

Method 

Role-playing is the concept of creating a more realistic situation, usually one of human problems and conflicts, and then acting out the various parts. The role assuming closely approximate a real situation and affords the participants the vicarious experiences that enhance their sensitivity, growth and development.

The value of role playing are:

1. It requires the person to carry out a thought or decision he may have reached.

2. It permits the practice of carrying out an action and makes it clear that good human relations require skill.

3. Attitudinal changes are effectively accomplished by placing persons in specified roles. It becomes clear in role-play that a person’s behaviour is not only a function of his personality but also of the situation in which he finds himself.

4. It makes person aware of the feeling of others.

5. It helps in developing a fuller appreciation of the important part played by feelings.

6. Each person gets an opportunity to discover his own personal faults.

7. It permits training in the control of feelings and emotions.

Four types of learning can take place through role-play:

(a) Learning by practice of deserted skill;

(b) Learning through imitation of desirable behaviour;

(c) Learning through observations and feedback about their effectiveness and weakness and

(d) Learning through analysis and conceptualization.

Method 

In this method, each team of the trainees is given a file of correspondence bearing on a functional area of management. Each individual studies the file and makes his own recommendations on the situation.

If further information is required by him, it is supplied by the members of the team later the observations of each individual member are compared and conclusions on different functional areas reached; and these are put down in the form of a report. For this purpose, such teaching methods as the incident process, role-playing, the syndicate method, and the conference method are used.

Merits:

This method has the following advantages:

1. Decisions are rapid, feedback is objective, and further decisions are based on the feedback of earlier decisions.

2. The consequences of many possible alternatives in a situation can be evaluated over a period of time.

3. The participants pay for the consequences of their decisions.

4. Because of emotional involvement without any strain, the participants play for hours with sustained interest.

5. Decision-making is by a group which consists of managers and specialists from different departments. Each member, therefore, gets an opportunity to participate in it.

6. An abstract and complex situation is given the semblance of a real world situation, and this illusion facilitates the learning process.

7. Teachers welcome management games since student participation is excellent.

8. By mixing with managers from different functional areas, managers get a better appreciation of other functional areas.

9. The effect of long-term policies can be demonstrated in the game.

10. The efficiency of planning and systematic approach can be demonstrated.

11. Team co-operation can be fostered and departmental conflicts softened down and/or eliminated.

12. Promising young managers get a perspective on the company as a whole when they work with their senior colleagues in the game.

13. The specified time limit imposes the time constraint on the trainees which stimulates reality.

14. The method is inexpensive and can be organised easily.

Demerits:

The main demerits are:

1. It sometimes discourages originality for teams have to adopt themselves to rigid situations.

2. The logical solutions suggested by the team to be abstracted from compulsions against which it had to be tackled in the actual situation.

Method 

Business games are classroom simulation exercises in which teams of individuals compete against one another or against an environment in order to achieve a given objective. These games are designed to be representative of real-life conditions. Under these, an atmosphere is created in which the participants play a dynamic role, and enrich their skills through involvement and simulated experience.

Most business games are expressed in the form of a mathematical model controlled and manipulated by an electric computer; while others can be played manually. In the former case, quicker feedback is available- clerical work is avoided and time is controlled. Some games are interacting types of games, while others are non-interacting types.

The interacting types of games are like a game of tennis- the decisions of one team influence or affect the performance of the other teams. In the non-interacting types of games, each team is independent, and its performance entirely depends upon its own competence; the decisions of one team do not affect others.

Usually, management games consist of several teams which represent competing companies. Each team consists of 2 to 6 members. Teams take decisions regarding production, prices, research expenditure, marketing, advertising, and attempt to maximise hypothetical profits in this simulated environment.

The decisions of a team are fed into a computer which has been programmed according to a particular model of the market. The game continues for 6 to 12 periods. At the end of that period, the final results are worked out by each team and compared with those of others.

Business games are intended to teach trainees how to take management decisions in an integrated manner. The participants learn by analysing problems and by making trial-and-error decisions. Such games illustrate the existence of various group processes, including communication, the resolution of conflicts, the emergence of leadership, and the development of ties of friendship.

Merits and Demerits of the Business Games’ Method:

1. There is usually a great sense of excitement and enjoyment in playing the game. This helps to develop problem-solving skills; and helps focus attention on the need for planning than on “putting out fires.”

2. As the companies elect their own officers and develop their own organisation structures, they can, therefore, be useful for developing leadership skills and for fostering co-operation and teamwork.

3. It helps to analyse and select the significant and relevant data from a mass of information; and also helps ability to decide with incomplete data and amid conditions of uncertainty.

4. It helps in changing attitudes. The participant becomes more tolerant.

5. A major problem with games is that they can be very expensive to develop and implement particularly when the game itself is computerised.

6. Management games usually force decision maker to choose his alternatives from a “closed” list; in real life managers are more often rewarded for creating new alternatives.

7. Though games may be accurate simulations, they are never totally realistic; for no evidence is available which may indicate that those who are successful in business games will also be successful in a real job.

On the whole, the trainees almost always react favourably to a well-run game and it is a good technique for developing problem-solving and leadership skills.

Method # 12. Sensitivity, Laboratory or T-Group Training:

This method was originally developed by Kurt Lewin and popularised by the National Training Laboratories, USA under Leland Bradford. It is known by several names such as ‘sensitivity training’, ‘T-group training’, ‘action training’, ‘Group dynamics’, ‘Confrontation Groups’, ‘Awareness expertise’, ‘human capacity movement’, ‘sensitivity retreats’, ‘encounter sessions’ and so forth.

According to Chris Argyris, “sensitivity training is a group experience designed to provide maximum possible opportunity for the individuals to expose their behaviour, give and receive feedback, experiment with new behaviour and develop awareness of self and of others.”

Objectives:

Sensitivity training involves the use of development techniques which attempt to increase or improve human sensitivity and awareness. The goal of laboratory training is broadly defined as “helping trainees to improve in quality and participation in human affairs.”

In other words, it tries to provide:

1. Managers with increased awareness of their own behaviour and of how others perceive them;

2. Greater sensitivity to be behaviour of others, and increased understanding of group process;

3. A clarification and development of personal values and goals consonant with a democratic and scientific approach to problem of social and personal decision and action;

4. Development of concepts and theoretical insights that will serve as tools in linking personal values, goals and intentions to actions that are consistent with these inner factors and with the situation requirements; and

5. Achievement of greater behavioural effectiveness in transactions with one’s various environments.

Thus, it will be observed that the objectives of sensitivity training include an understanding of oneself and sensitivity to others; an ability to listen to others and to communicate diagnostic understanding of group problem, and ability to contribute effectively and properly to the work of the group; and an understanding of the complexities of inter-group and intra-organisation problems.

The specific results sought include increased ability to empathise with others, improved listening skills, greater openness, increased tolerance for individual differences, and improved conflict resolution skills.

The basic pattern of such a programme is to organise trainees into small unstructured group consisting of 10 to 15 persons in which interaction will occur regularly throughout the training programme. Usually there is no leader, no planned agenda and no stated goal. The trainees may be given case, role-playing situations or other training assignments as a springboard for group interaction.

The discussion focuses on “here and now”, i.e., the participants, are encouraged to openly discuss each participant’s attitudes, reactions and other behavioural patterns. The participants are also encouraged to be introspective and at the same time to be more empathetic toward the feeling of others.

The feedback process is all important. The trainees have to feel secure enough to inform each other truthfully on their personal feelings and reactions to one another’s behaviour. The emphasis is on a “face-to-face” interaction and confrontation.

Advantages and Disadvantages of T-Group Training:

T-group may be used to help participants:

1. Learn more about themselves, especially their own weaknesses and emotions;

2. Develop insights into how they react to others and how others react to them;

3. Discover how groups work and how to diagnose human relations problems;

4. Find out how to behave more effectively in interpersonal relations and how to manage people through means other than power;

5. Develop more “competent” and “authentic” relations in which feelings are expressed openly;

6. Confront interpersonal problems directly, so that they may be solved, and not try to avoid them; rather smooth them over, or seek a compromise.

7. The trainers often create stress situations. At times, groups are “converted into psychological nudist camps which end up mainly as self-flagellation societies.” There is a danger that training of this sort may do a better job of tearing apart people than of bringing them together.

8. Whatever changes occur the trainees tend to fade out when they return to an unsympathetic environment in which company policy and their boss’s attitude may inhibit the exercise of their newly learned skills.

9. This type of training makes the management trainee so sensitive to the feelings of others that he is unwilling to take hard decisions.

Sensitivity training is a very controversial development technique. The reason is the depth of emotional involvement required of trainees. They laterally need to bare their souls in training session and so training is, thus very personal in nature. Sensitivity training has, therefore, been widely criticised.

The critics have observed:

1. Sensitivity training based on creating stress situations for their own sake.

2. The participants are often unaware of what the outcome of a session will be.

3. Its ultimate goals and techniques are often inconsistent with the business and economic world in which we live.

4. Such a training has been known to result in nervous breakdown of trainees.

5. Anybody with a registration fee can attend.

In the light of the above criticisms, some hints for setting a T-group programme may be somewhat like this:

1. T-Group training is more appropriate for developing “organic” organisations. When this type of openness and flexible organisation structure is not appropriate, such a training is not appropriate.

2. The leader-trainer must be carefully selected on the basis of his ability to lead effectively so that emotional situations can be translated into constructive rather than destructive consequences.

3. The participants for such training should be selected for their emotional stability and then tolerance for anxiety.

4. Programme should be strictly voluntary.

5. All trainees should know ahead of time what sort of training they are going to get.

6. A great deal of attention should be given to building in mechanisms for transferring the learning back to the organisation.

Method 

It is a training technique which indicates the duplication of organizational situations in a learning environment. It is a mock-up of a real thing. This technique has been used for developing technical and interpersonal skills.

In simulation, the following procedure is usually adopted:

i. Essential characteristics of a real-life organisation or activity are abstracted and presented as a case not to be studied and analyzed a in the usual case study method but to be experienced by the trainee as a realistic, life-like circumstance.

ii. Trainees are asked to assume various roles in the circumstance and to solve the problem facing them. They are asked to be themselves, not to act.

iii. A simulation often involves a telescopic or compressing of time events; a single hour may be equated with a month or a quarter of a year in real life, and many events are experienced in a relatively brief period of time.

iv. Trainees are required to make decision that have a real effect in the simulation and about which they receive rapid feedback.

v. The simulation is followed by a critique of what went on during the exercise.

The advantages to simulation are the opportunities to attempt to “create an environment” similar to real situations the managers incur, without high costs involved should the action prove undesirable. The disadvantages are that it is difficult to duplicate the pressures and realities of actual decision-making on the jobs, and individuals often act differently in real-life situations when they do in acting out a simulated exercise.

Method

The conference method is another commonly used method of executive development. Topics such as human relations, safety education, customer relations, sales training, are often discussed, debated, spoken about at conferences specially organised and designed for the purpose.

A conference is a meeting of people to discuss a subject of common interest. The conference is structured around a small group meeting wherein a leader helps the group identify and define a problem, guides the discussion along desired lines and summarises the views that represent the consensus of the group in dealing with the problem.

The participants exchange notes, opinions, ideas on the subject in a systematic, planned way. A conference may be divided into small groups for focused discussions. Participants are expected to air their opinions and thoughts freely.

In order to ensure its success- (i) participants are expected to come prepared for the conference, (ii) the conference leader should conduct the sessions according to a plan, giving enough room for healthy interchange of different viewpoints, (iii) the discussion should proceed along desired lines and (iv) the size of the group should not be too large.

Method 

Lectures are formal presentations on a topic by an experienced and knowledgeable person. The presentation is generally supported by discussions, case studies, audiovisual aids and film shows. It is a simple and inexpensive way of imparting knowledge on a topic of special importance to a large audience.

There could be a speedy interchange of ideas on a specific topic. The method may often degenerate into a kind of one-way traffic where the presenter tries to get ahead without paying attention to the reactions of the audience. If the lecture is not interesting enough, the audience may not participate and offer any feedback. The listeners play a largely non-participatory role.

They may ask questions but they never get the feel of what is being talked about. Moreover, participants do not share each other’s experiences and hence the learning is confined to what the presenter has to say. The method could bring in good results only when the presentation is interesting, lively and gives enough room for healthy interaction between the presenter and the audience.

Unless the presenter possesses excellent communication skills, participants may get bored and may quit the session in a hurry. To make lectures more interesting, therefore, the presenter must be fully equipped with audio visual aids, lively examples, interesting anecdotes, etc.

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Methods used for Management Development (Major Training Methods Used in India)

A feasible mix for formula of MDP rests on two main pil­lars, viz.

i. On-the-job experience, i.e., work experience under the close guidance and coaching of the boss, and

ii. Classroom training and education courses, i.e., formal training program­mes to learn new knowledge, new techniques, broader concepts of theory and philosophy of management.

Formal courses can enable a manager to assimilate the theory of management. However, real learning takes place only when the learners get an opportunity to bring into practice the new ideas and tech­niques and this is possible only through work experience or on- the-job training under the able guidance of the boss.

In other words, classroom training and on-the-job experience must be closely interrelated and both these methods must be duly ba­lanced and carried out in an atmosphere of sound and enlight­ened management demonstrated by the top executives of the company. We shall now describe briefly some of the important methods of management development programme (MDP).

Following are some of the major training methods used in India under the programme of management development:

1. Lecture Method:

The lecture method with question- answer facility is the best method to pass on ideas, concepts, information and knowledge.

A good lecture must:

i. Motivate group interest,

ii. Be well planned as to the purpose, main ideas, clear organisation, interesting development,

iii. Be well presented enthusiastically and tailor-made to the listener’s needs and interest,

iv. Not drag out in length- 30 minutes to one hour (normal duration).

Let the lecture be combined with guided discussion wherein the lecturer not only gives informa­tion and ideas but also raises leading questions to which stu­dents provide answers. The lecturer should also give demonstra­tions and formal reading assignments and, if possible, show films. Anecdotes, jokes and other attention getters may be used occasionally to hold the full attention of listeners during the lecture period.

2. Syndicate Method:

Syndicate method is suitable only if the participants are fairly advanced in their fields. Participants of the syndicate are carefully selected. The syndicate is given a task properly spelt out in terms of briefs, background papers etc. The teacher acts as a resource, rather than as a lecturer.

The syndicate method is a device for the study of specific problems and also for other tasks. Each syndicate prepares a report which is presented to other groups of executives. Oppor­tunity is provided for discussion, suggestions, criticism, com­ments, recommendations for action. We have a team of members representing different interests so that we have good inter­change of ideas and experiences.

3. Case Method:

Case studies are extensively used in teaching law, personnel management, human relations, labour- relations, marketing, production management, finance manage­ment and business policy. A case is a real life illustration for studying a problem. The case helps in developing analytical skills and decision-making skills.

The learner finds that there are more ways than one to analyse and to solve a problem. He learns to look objectively at the facts, analyse them, find out various alternative solutions and support the best final solu­tion. The group of learners must be fairly well advanced in understanding the various concepts of management. Great care is needed in the preparation of case study material and in case writing.

Cases can be used in two ways:

(1) A case is submitted after describing the formal concepts and theory. The students should apply the theory and knowledge to specific situations.

(2) A case may be assigned to students for written analysis and or oral class debate without giving explanation of relevant theory and concepts.

Of course, it is presumed that the stu­dents are mature and possess enough background in the subject matter of the case. Case discussion is an important aspect of case study method; discussion should be free and informal.

The teacher must be competent and he should act as a catalyst. He helps students to discover by themselves views and ideas on the subject matter of the case. His goal is to guide the learning- teaching process.

There are many advantages of the case study method:

i. It provides for learning by doing;

ii. It develops analytical thinking,

iii. It gives problem solving ability;

iv. It broadens the student’s horizon of knowledge and

v. It is the best means for integrating knowledge secured from a num­ber of knowledge fields.

4. Role Playing:

Role playing is a supplementary training method usually combined with the lecture or the conference. It has been widely used for leadership and human relations training. A trainee gets an opportunity to learn relations skills through practice and develops a good insight in the intricate inter-personal behaviours. Role playing can bring about the desired changes in the behaviour and attitudes of trainees.

Typical examples of role playing are:

i. A salesman presenting a sales talk, on a product to a- purchasing agent;

ii. A superior discussing a grievance with an employee;

iii. A boss conducting a post-appraisal review with a subordinate; and

iv. An inter­viewer conducting an employment interview.

Role-playing experience soon points out the gap between ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’. It involves action, doing and practice. You learn by doing. You can appreciate the views of others. Knowledge of results is immediate. Knowledge secured by text­books, lectures and discussions can be put into practice imme­diately.

It is not a drama or mere acting but is a useful method to project life between learning in the class-room and working on the job and creating live business situation in the class­room. Basic mental sets are stated for all participants, but no dialogue is supplied. Two or more trainees are given parts to play before the rest of the class. We have no lines to memorise and no rehearsals.

They play their parts spontaneously before the group. The role players and the class do analyse and cri­ticize the behaviour of the players. Hence, we get immediately the knowledge of results. The role playing method offers the advantages of the case method and, in addition, provides train­ing in understanding the attitudes and feelings of other per­sons.

It is particularly effective in developing empathy the understanding of the other person’s feelings and attitudes. It increases the sensitivity of the participant to the feelings of others through feedback.

5. Conference Method:

It is the reverse of the lecture method. It assumes that all members have the ideas, knowledge and information. It involves a group of people to pool ideas, examine and share facts and test assumptions and draw con­clusions, all of which contributes to the improvement of job performance.

The conference leader does not dominate and monopolise the discussions, but tries to bring out the best from every member. He makes a preliminary statement indi­cating the scope of the subject and submits issues for discus­sion. He puts questions and induces the members to participate actively in the discussion. The conference method should not have more than 20 members.

We have three kinds of conferen­ces:

i. Guided or instructional conference (used for training purposes);

ii. Consultative conference; and

iii. Problem-solv­ing conference.

The conference method is very useful for the development of conceptual knowledge and also for the creation and modification of attitudes. Case study uses the conference method.

6. Management Games:

Teams of trainees are formed to meet, discuss and reach decisions relating to subjects such as inventories, sales production amounts, research and develop­ment and many other management activities. A management or business game is a classroom simulation exercise in which trainee team compete against each other or against an environ­ment to achieve other given objectives.

The game closely resembles real-life conditions. Top management games teach trainees how to make top management decisions for the whole enterprise in an integrated manner. We have also games for particular functional area of management, e.g. marketing, financial, production, materials management and control.

Trainees learn by analysing problems, by using intuition and judgement and by making trial-and-error decisions. But, since situations are artificial, they do not pay the price for wrong decisions, as it would be in real-life conditions. We have objec­tive feedback of the consequences of decisions. The feedback is quick and it helps learning.

A management game satisfies egot­istic needs and interest is sustained. These games provide the instructors opportunity to study patterns of communication, emergence of leaders, solution of disputes, etc. Management games must be used with lectures, reading assignments and conference discussions.

7. Incident Process Method:

It was developed by Paul and Faith Pigors. It is a process in which an incident is presented to the trainee participants. Facts about the incident are deve­loped by the questions asked by trainees.

The process develops as follows:

i. Presentation of the incident,

ii. Fact-finding through questions asked by participants,

iii. The group defines the problem as a whole,

iv. Each individual will give written decision for the problem with supporting reasons,

v. The final decision is reached through group discussions of the case.

The incident process forces members to determine the facts before the problem or case is solved. In the usual case method, both facts and issues or problems are given to members before dis­cussion.

8. Sensitivity Training:

In 1946, the technique of sensitivity training (T-group training) was developed. The overall objec­tive of sensitivity training is the development of an awareness or sensitivity to the behavioural pattern of one’s self and others. You learn to see yourself as others view you, i.e., how your behaviour appeared to others.

More specific T-group goals Include:

i. Awareness and understanding to group processes,

ii. Increased openness to others of differing background,

iii. Greater concern f on needs of others,

iv. Increased tolerance for individual differences,

v. Greater acceptance of minority groups in work place,

vi. Enhanced listening skills, and

vii. Establishment of more realistic personal standards of behaviour.

Sensitivity training helps a manager to develop a greater trust and openness in his relations with his subordinates. A mana­ger can have better understanding of himself and also of his subordinates. Sensitivity group training involves face-to-face contact with a small group for a couple of weeks.

As a unit is a small training group, it is referred as “T-Group”, the T’ stands for training. Under sensitivity training, the learning takes place not on an intellectual level, but on a ‘feeling’ level, since the individual is actually experiencing events rather than talk­ing about them. Co-operation and acceptance cannot be ordered in this group.

Thus the trainee manager must undergo real soul searching in terms of behavioural changes before being accepted by the fellow participants. All members are treated as equals in the group. The individuals play themselves instead of some structured role.

When sensitivity training is combined with lectures, dis­cussions, group exercises, personal skill training, readings and feedback sessions, we call it “laboratory training”. It was in­troduced in business around 1960. It tries to improve human relations understanding skills by means of face-to-face inter­actions within the small group meetings.

T-Group assist ma­nagers to perceive and learn from consequences to their beha­viour. It stresses directness, openness and frankness in your interpersonal relationships. It focuses attention upon emo­tions, feelings and interactions. T-Group tones up the organi­sation climate through higher sensitiveness and trust of ma­nagers as well as greater respect, for contribution of others- peers, subordinates, or superiors.

If all managers undergo sensi­tivity training, we can have a big change in the total organisational behaviour and climate. We will have more humanised organisation.

9. Project Method:

As a method of development, the special assignment or project method is a very useful and flexible training device. A special project such as mechanisation of material handling, marketing of a new product, provision of technical service, branch expansion, organisation structure, management reporting systems, solving industrial relations is­sues, computer introduction, etc., may be given to an individual executive who will work on the project, collect data, make the analysis and investigation and offer his recommendations.

This helps considerably in the growth of a manager. You may go a step further and ask him also to implement the recommenda­tions if these are sound and useful. In the process an individual manager has ample scope for personal development. Many companies in India use this method.

Project method is also used by many Indian management institutions for their student trainees. A student is assigned a certain problem area in his own specialisation. He studies a live problem of an organi­sation, collects the data conducts analysis and investigation, and prepares a proposal giving his conclusion and recommen­dations.

He prepares the project report with the help of his coach or guide. Oral examination is given to test the depth of understanding of the student and provide him an opportu­nity to explain the conclusions and solutions given in his report.

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